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What is PhD Dissertation? Introduction and Structure
Continue ReadingWhat is PhD dissertation?
PhD dissertation or doctoral thesis is a documented account of your findings for partial fulfilment of PhD degree. Once you’re confident to present your work, you prepare a write-up comprising of what motivated you to start the project, how you proceeded to investigate a problem, what your findings are and how you interpret them.
PhD Dissertation is evaluated by examiners, assigned from both within the host university as well as externally, often internationally. The selected examiners are experts in your area of study who provide you with insightful analysis of your data and help you with critical suggestions for improvement.
You’re expected to incorporate these inputs and make a final submission, which is then considered for awarding you the much-awaited PhD degree. The contents, length and format of a PhD dissertation vary according to institute requirements as well as by personal preference.
Component of PhD Dissertation
Broadly however, PhD Dissertation comprises of:
i. Thesis Cover
This is meant to provide all important information at a glance. It includes the thesis title, your name, the name (and logo) of your institute, and the year of submission. Many students include their supervisor’s name. Some people prefer to include an artistic depiction of their results or a scientific image, say, from a microscope, or a field camera.
ii. Declaration
Some universities want you to include a signed self-declaration, stating among other things, that the thesis findings are original work and have not been used for the conferral of any other degree at any other institute.
iii. Synopsis
This is a summary of your entire work, beginning with a short paragraph on the background, the broad question, followed by a brief description of the methods and results of the investigation, and ending with a note on the relevance of your findings.
iv. Introduction
Before embarking on research, a student usually surveys available literature for work done till date on the topic of interest.
What are the findings of previous researchers?
What are the loopholes in available data?
What improvements are possible?
To answer these, it’s important to read as many scientific articles as possible to know the state of affairs. Each published article addresses a scientific problem to a small extent. Putting these findings together helps to comprehend the chronology of development in the field and enables us to connect the dots to form a bigger picture.
The introductory chapter is where you introduce the major players of your story, the known facts and literature references required for you to get started. Each statement here should cite original works, which are expanded later in the References section.
v. Materials and Methods
This section describes your tools, the materials used, and techniques employed to carry out the investigation. You should acknowledge the manufacturer of reagents and give appropriate usage instructions.
Often reagents are gifted by peers and a kind acknowledgement is warranted when you cite them. It’s said that standardizing assays takes longer than generating presentable data.
It’s worthy therefore to pen down every necessary information, in such detail that a new researcher finds it easy to reproduce your results and take the project forward.
It’s a nice gesture to help a successor, so that time is not wasted in reinventing the wheel. In fact, you might want to revisit your dissertation later to learn techniques that you once performed with great efficiency but have lost touch with!
For this exercise to be effective, you need to be methodical throughout your PhD, and take down notes while doing experiments. If you believe you’ll be able to recall everything from memory, then you might be in for a shock!
While writing your dissertation, you’re most often restricted by a deadline, and it might be difficult to recollect experimental nitty-gritties. In fact, it’s a good practice to start organizing the sections on literature survey and methodologies well in advance while you’re still working. That saves a lot of time and effort later.
vi. Results
This is where you report the findings of your experiments. This section is essentially a combination of text and data figures. You describe the rationale of undertaking an experiment, what your hypothesis was, and what you expected to address with the experiment.
You then report the observation and analyze it. Each experiment is described in detail and connected with the prior experiment and the subsequent one, thus building up to a story.
An experiment thus leads you to another question which you try and answer in the next one, finally culminating in an interpretation of the combined results.
vii. Discussion
It’s great to be confident of your research findings and it’s equally essential to be open to analyze your results in the light of current knowledge. Your data might support some views in the field while it might contradict certain others.
It’s crucial to respect peers and give due credit to their findings, whether or not your findings align with theirs. What is critical is to place your research in a broad perspective:
How do your results support previous data?
Are you able to reproduce some crucial data from previous publications?
Why do you think your findings are different than certain others?
What are the scopes of improvement in your research?
Questions such as these are answered here. You may also utilize this section to discuss data which might not fit into your initial hypothesis but which you have worked upon to give your research a new direction.
This is really a fantastic place to reflect upon your data and freely express your thoughts about it.
viii. Contribution to the Field
As an extension of the previous section, some people describe the implications of the current research, how the findings help the field progress and how they contribute to solve unanswered puzzles.
ix. Future Directions
A PhD dissertation is an incremental contribution of a single person to a huge field of study. It’s never expected to culminate discovery. You’ve done your best in the given time frame, and no time limit is ever enough for the progress of science.
Research is an ongoing process, and although you might have earned your PhD degree, your thesis will have a section on future directions. It’s vital you understand where your research is headed, what advances could be done and what are the missing links.
Students often misinterpret this section as a list of unaccomplished tasks and therefore consider it a drawback. On the contrary, a well-written section on the future possibilities demonstrates your ability to think beyond your degree, it shows that you’re interested to see your project move beyond the scopes of your dissertation and provides valuable research ideas for your successors.
Be rest assured that you’ll be gratefully acknowledged for the same! Having worked on a project for many years, it’s imperative that you’re the most knowledgeable person about your project and are the best one to suggest research projects branching out from it.
x. References
Previously published literature from peer-reviewed journals or theses cited in the text should be described in internationally accepted formats (like APA, MLA, etc.) in this section. A good PhD dissertation should cover major and minor contributions in the field, so that a reader can find necessary literature to refer to if desired.
A Perfect PhD Dissertation!
The sections described above are the commonly used ones in dissertations worldwide. There might be minor alterations and inclusions though.
Students often incorporate Acknowledgements (to thank the many people who helped them, including supervisor, family, friends, and others), List of Abbreviations (for quick access to expansion of acronyms), and List of publications (to mention the articles which cover findings from the dissertation).
As you might understand, PhD dissertation is a record book of everything you’ve done to achieve that special degree. So, it’s best to give due prominence to it.
You’ll realize that this remains extremely dear to you, although later in life you might want to rectify the writing abilities of your younger self!
Nevertheless, given the time constraints that you must complete writing your thesis in, it’s best to plan and manage your time accordingly. Not every university gives you dedicated time to write your thesis, instead you are expected to carry on working while you write.
It usually helps if you’re organized throughout your PhD and do not have to dig in and fish out every information with great difficulty form your lab notebooks! Although a PhD dissertation doesn’t usually have a word limit, it’s good to keep the language clear and concise, with minimal re-iterations.
You wouldn’t want your examiners to get bored of reading! The onus is on you to write your dissertation in a way that is enjoyable to read and easy to understand, such that it does not challenge the attention span of your readers.
It should reflect how articulate you are in conveying your research on paper. It’s worthwhile to categorize your dissertation into well-defined chapters, and needless to say, please do avoid typographical and grammatical errors, and plagiarism.
Even self-plagiarism is discouraged in several universities, meaning that you’re expected to re-word yourself even though your thesis and published paper might cover the same results.
Some universities however allow students to compile all their papers and present them as their dissertation.
Overall, PhD dissertation is a testament to the hard work of a student who by the completion of PhD, is an expert in the dissertation topic.
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Simple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion
Continue ReadingSimple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion
The movement of molecules from the plasma membrane with the help of transporter protein such as carrier is called as facilitated diffusion. However, in simple diffusion, there is movement of the molecules, but they don’t require the assistance of membrane proteins, and takes place due to the electrochemical difference between the two sides.
The gradient concentration is required in simple diffusion for the driving force to act, whereas in facilitated the solute concentration variation through the membrane is the driving force responsible for facilitated diffusion.
Although majority of facilitated diffusion does not suffice the need of ATP, however in few cases it does require ATP. But in simple diffusion there is no ATP need in this passive transport type of simple diffusion. Facilitated diffusion take place due to the exactitude between the carriers and the solute, however there is no selectivity of solutes in simple diffusion.
The speed is quite high in facilitated diffusion, whereas in simple diffusion its quite low. Inhibitors cannot stop the simple diffusion, whereas in facilitated diffusion it is possible due to distinct inhibitors.
Kinetic energy along with concentration gradient helps to carry out simple diffusion and similarly in facilitated diffusion. In facilitated diffusion molecules can progress in both the direction i.e., towards or against the concentration gradient.
However, in simple diffusion, the shift is restricted towards the gradient. The molecules which can pass through are water soluble huge molecules through the plasma membrane in facilitated diffusion, whereas in simple diffusion, tiny water-soluble molecule can pass through.
Channel proteins are not required in simple diffusion as they can diffuse through membrane surface, whereas they are required in facilitated diffusion resulting pores development and molecules can progress.
Example of facilitated diffusion are movement of substances like amino acid and glucose from blood to cell, in the blood transportation of oxygen, and various ions like calcium and potassium. In simple diffusion, fusing of atmospheric gases, taking up of nutrients by microorganism, gases swapping taking place between the blood and lungs are some examples.
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ATP and ADP: Definition, Formation, and Examples
Continue ReadingATP and ADP Definition
The source of energy for the organism is the ATP, which is required to various biological processes. When the body requires ATP to meet the requirement, that ATP is broken down to ADP where the energy released is used by us to sustain life.
There are 3 phosphate molecule and one adenine molecule which forms the ATP.
ATP to ADP Energy Release
As the ATP molecule consist of 3phosphate molecule and an adenine molecule, thus when ATP is converted to ADP, a phosphate molecule is lost in this process.
The reaction can be written as ATP → ADP + Pi
Thus, this reaction results in energy released which is used by the cells to perform the biological process. Thus, to obtain more energy foods that are rich in glucose can be administered and broken down to obtain food.Â
However, in absence of such condition, mechanism exist to produce energy. This is the reversal of the ATP synthesis process, which requires energy and reuses the ATP molecule.
The reaction is ADP + Pi → ATP.
Glucose and ATP
The amount of ATP required by the cells is in huge numbers, thus they are synthesized within the cell and as the cells are in millions thus, ATP synthesis is also required in huge numbers.
To synthesize ATP, glucose is required which is obtained from the food we consume and the other foods provide the raw material to synthesize ATP. Through the respiration process, glucose is metabolized and energy is produced.
Respiration and ATP Formation
Within plants and animals, through the respiration process ATP is formed. However, plant have photosynthesis through which they synthesize food. Some substrates are required for the synthesis of ATP.
Respiration process occurs in aerobic condition and requires three steps and they are Glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and Cytochrome system.
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Competition: Definition, Structure, and Examples
Continue ReadingCompetition Definition
As the word itself means to compete. When living organism in same species or different species compete for supplies such as food, territory, habitat, power and mating partners it is called as Competition.
It is a type of interaction that occurs within organism in the environment. As the number of organism exceeds than the environment can take care, thus for the survival they need to fight against each other for limited assets.
There are two types of Competition; Intraspecific and Interspecific. In Intraspecific competition, organism of the same species are rivals of each other and is called as Intra-specific.
Example is when the plants of same species are in close proximity for each other, they will fight for obtaining nutrients from the soil, water and sunlight and thus to survive they will adapt themselves in ways such as distorting, increasing in length and evolving with huge roots are some of the example.
The fight which occurs between different organism of different species can be termed as Interspecific competition. An example is, in plants where in the rice field, weeds are also grown.
In animals, the fight could be because of food such as between leopards and lion. Other types of competition are exploitation ad interference competition.
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Concentration: Definition, Structure, and Examples
Continue ReadingConcentration Definition
Within a solution, the total sum of the solute present in it is termed as Concentration. Amount of solute upon the amount of solvent can determine the concentration. Concentration states the amount of the product present and its value.
Thus, the amount of solute present in a particular solution is called as the Concentration and can be found out by the number of solute to the number of solvent within a solution.
Purification, solution dissolution and dissemination are the possible ways of concluding the amount of solute.
Concentration in various field has various meaning, in pharmacology it determine the value of pharma product. Isolating, desiccating of the active compound and condensation are the possible methods to determine the concentration of a product.
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Skeletal System: Definition, Structure, and Examples
Continue ReadingSkeletal System Definition
The major role of the skeleton is to provide structural support and protection, and it is made up mostly of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
An organ system (or simply a system) is a collection of organs that work together to achieve a certain purpose. The integumentary system, lymphatic system, muscular system, nervous system, reproductive system, urinary system, respiratory system, skeletal system, and immunological system are the organ systems in humans and other animals.
The skeletal system is a set of organs that act as the structure for an organism’s body. Other structures such as bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons are produced in the connective tissues.
The skeleton refers to all of an organism’s bones and cartilage. It might be either an exoskeleton or an endoskeleton. The skeletal structures of an endoskeleton are located within the body.
An exoskeleton is a form of skeleton that exists outside of an organism’s body. An endoskeleton is found in most animals. The skeleton in humans is of the endoskeleton type, with 206 bones.
The smallest bones are located in the middle ear, whereas the femur is the biggest bone. Crabs, shrimp, insects, and a variety of other invertebrates have exoskeletons.
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Hypotonic: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingHypotonic Definition
The word hypotonic originates from a Greek word where, hypo indicates under and tonos means tension. It is related to the tonicity of the solution, where the tonicity degree is quite low and the osmotic pressure is less than the other solution. Such a solution is said to by hypotonic.
The solute concentration is quite minimal when it is matched with the other solutions. The tonicity of a hypotonic solution is minimal when examined with the other solutions.
There will be a flow of water through the cell membrane due to variation in the tonicities of the solution. An example is when the blood serum is hypotonic against a particular solution, all the water molecule will move towards the place which has lower concentration of water.
In muscles which is hypertonic will have niftier tonicity or tension, whereas hypotonic muscle will have less tension and tonicity. Muscle is said to be isotonic when the tonicity is stable.
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Prophase II: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingProphase II Definition
The dissolution of the nucleolus and nuclear envelope, the shortening and thickness of the chromatids, and the replication and migration of centrosomes to polar areas characterise the first stage of meiosis II.
Because it produces gametes, meiosis is a reproductive cell division. Following meiosis, the resultant cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
This is because the parent cell goes through two meiotic divisions: the first (meiosis I) and the second (meiosis II) (meiosis II). There are four key phases in each of them.
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase are the four stages of the cell cycle. Each of these stages is labelled I or II depending on whether it happens during meiosis I or II.
Prophase II occurs after meiosis I, or if interkinesis is present, after meiosis I. During prophase II, the nuclear envelope and nucleolus dissolve if interkinesis occurs.
The chromosomes have been compacted. Centrosomes reproduce and travel in opposing directions. The centrosomes produce spindle fibres that expand outward.
Metaphase II begins when prophase II finishes. The distinction between prophase I and prophase II is that prophase I is the sole time when chromosomes cross across, whereas prophase II does not.
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Purebred: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingPurebred Definition
• A pure breed animal is one whose ancestors on both sides were members of a recognised breed.
• Of or relating to an animal arising from a long-term cross of the same breed’s unmixed lineage.
The term “purebred” refers to offspring that are the product of genuine breeding. True breeding is a technique for producing children with the same phenotypic as their parents.
When both parents are homozygous for particular characteristics, the outcome is a purebred. The technique of selective breeding might result in a purebred domesticated animal or a companion animal.
Two dogs of the same breed, for example, would have pups with fairly predictable characteristics. However, selective breeding within the same breed would be detrimental to the gene pool.
True breeding has a tendency to narrow the gene pool. Genetic diversity is increased when there is a big gene pool. Furthermore, greater genetic variety may enhance the odds of biological fitness and, as a result, survival.
A limited gene pool, on the other hand, may result in little genetic diversity. This decreases the likelihood of acquiring beneficial characteristics that improve biological fitness.
Because of their small gene pool, purebreds are more likely to have genetic illnesses or congenital health issues.
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Relative Fitness: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingRelative Fitness Definition
Relative Fitness is a measure of biological fitness in which a genotype’s or phenotype’s reproductive rate is compared to the population’s maximum reproductive rate (of other genotypes or phenotypes).
Darwinian fitness, or simply fitness of a biological characteristic, is a term used in biology to indicate how effective an organism is at passing on its genes. It differs from physical fitness in that the latter is concerned with an organism’s physical well-being.
Darwinian fitness is concerned with an organism’s capacity to generate progeny. The better an individual’s fitness is, the more likely he or she will survive and live long enough to reproduce.
There are two methods for determining fitness:
(1) absolute fitness and
(2) relative fitness.
Absolute fitness refers to an organism’s fitness as measured by the number of children it would generate in its lifespan and the age at which those offspring would reach reproductive age.
Absolute fitness is standardised relative fitness. It is a biological fitness metric in which the reproductive rate (of a genotype or phenotype) is compared to the population’s maximum reproductive rate (of other genotypes or phenotypes).
Absolute fitness divided by the average number of children in a population can be used to calculate it. It’s written as wrel.
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