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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Structure and Function
Continue ReadingWhat is Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?
In eukaryotes, smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found. smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a type of endoplasmic reticulum, in which ribosomes are absent and in structure is tubular.
Regulation of calcium level, removal of toxins from drug, metabolism of sugars are the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It is a vital organ with various functions and comprises of a chain of tubules which are the cisternae.
Within the cell membrane and the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum extends. There are two types of ER; smooth and rough ER. rER is located in protein generating cells.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in fatty acid cells and steroid hormones. Example of rER are plasma cells, liver cells, pancreatic cells and goblet cells.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in leucocytes, interstitial cells, heart’s conducting fibers, adipose cells and others.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Discovery
In 1902, smooth endoplasmic reticulum was first time seen in light microscope by a group of scientist and one of them was Charles Garnier, before that an important organelle like ER was not even discovered. Although it had to be proved whether ER actually subsisted, took around 50 years of wait, after the arrival of electron microscopy.
Inside the cytoplasm it appeared like netted structure and was thus called ER and its function, structure, working was all identified by 1960. It played a role in the protein synthesis was realized by Gunter Blobel around 1971.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
As it does not possess ribosomes its surface is smooth, hence the name smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It is present in the cytoplasm and is linked to the nuclear envelope. Inside the reticulum is the net like structure in which tubules are present along with vesicles in the cytoplasm. As there are folding present in the ER, which increases the surface area so that the enzymes can act.
Lumen is present inside the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which is encapsulated by a membrane of phospholipid. The tubules branches with the other tubules resulting in the formation of a 3D reticulum, however they may also exist in spiral shape in cells generating hormones.
Types of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: A type of smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the sarcoplasmic reticulum which is found in cells of muscle, whose function is to regulate the homeostasis of calcium. In structure they are tubular in shape surrounding the muscle and gather around the myofibril, in which is the cuff like structure of SR.
The functions are it controls the calcium concentrations, while the muscles are contracting. In structure there exist a net like structure in which are tubules spreading throughout the muscle, surrounds the myofibrils. Longitudinal and junctional sarcoplasmic reticulum are its domains.
The similarity in both the domains is that there is an arrangement of myofibrils which orient themselves with the sarcomeres. Tubules are in linear fashion and are connected to each other, surrounding the myofibril is called as longitudinal SR and the area where these tubules end are sac like structures called the terminal cisterna.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the point of entry to the SR and the exit points are the ryanodine receptors along with cisterna. During the contraction of muscle, calcium is taken out from the SR and moves to the ryanodine reception, thus allowing the contraction to take place.
Then again, the calcium is reached to SR with the help of smooth endoplasmic reticulum during relaxation. Thus, acting like a pump and transporting calcium from cytoplasm to the SR and vice-versa.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Location
All types of eukaryotic cell possess smooth endoplasmic reticulum except mature RBC, embryo cells and ova. Hepatocytes, striated muscle cell, gonadal and sebaceous cell contain huge amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function
Production of lipid, intracellular calcium regulation, drug detoxification, metabolism of sugar are some of the functions. Sebaceous cell, gonadal cell, hepatocytes contain huge amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Although the amount of cholesterol produced by ER is quite minimal but homeostasis maintenance is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Movement of molecule to Golgi complex from ER is also another function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
i. Lipid Synthesis
The sites where membrane comes in close proximity to other organelles such as plasma membrane, lysosomes, chloroplast, Golgi apparatus and lysosomes and others are the MCS also called the membrane contact sites. Thus, transfer of molecules happen through them. For the production of lipid, in huge amount enzyme are present within the ER to carry out the synthesis.
On receiving a signal, these enzyme start to act and maintain homeostasis, allows the growth and differentiation to occur. Phospholipid’s synthesis safeguards the cell and its content, allows the growth, provides immunity and transfers signal along with transportation of lipid. Between the mitochondria and the ER is the MCS which produces phospholipids.
Another type of lipid are ceramides, produced in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and are moved to Golgi apparatus. Its functions are cell adhesion, migration, signaling, cell death and cell cycle.
In the smooth endoplasmic reticulum the steroid hormones are formed, however as they cannot be stored in vesicles, hence depending on the requirement they are produced from precursors. smooth endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in testis, ova, hepatocytes and other cells.
ii. Carbohydrate Metabolism
In eukaryotes the source of energy is the carbohydrate. In varying conditions glucose is synthesized from precursors such as pyruvate, lactate, succinate which are non- carbohydrate and the process is known as gluconeogenesis. Although this is a multi-step process.
Glucose-6-Phosphate is the final compound synthesized and cannot pass through the cell and is therefore stored in the cell, thus converting glucose-6-phosphate to glucose by the enzyme present in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum which is glucose-6-phosphatase. Its function are maintaining homeostasis and glucose level and is present in liver and kidney, where the conversion takes place.
iii. Calcium Concentration Regulation
The calcium concentration is regulated by sarcoplasmic reticulum, which is a type of smooth ER. This calcium regulation takes place in the muscle cell. smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the point of entry to the SR and the exit points are the ryanodine receptors along with cisterna.
During the contraction of muscle, calcium is taken out from the SR and moves to the ryanodine reception, thus allowing the contraction to take place. Then again, the calcium is reached to SR with the help of smooth endoplasmic reticulum during relaxation. Thus, acting like a pump and transporting calcium from cytoplasm to the SR and vice-versa.
iv. Drug Detoxification
There are various enzymes present in smooth ER and they are cytochrome P450, which helps in removals of toxins from the liver. The mechanism behind it is to solubilize the drug by attaching a 0H- group so that it can be removed out of the body.
Examples of drug working on the same mechanism are barbiturates and phenobarbital. The detoxification rate can be increased by barbiturates and alcohol; however, this is not possible with small volume of doses, due to wide action of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Disorders Caused by Dysfunctional Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
i. Cytochrome P450 Oxidoreductase Deficiency
The enzyme present in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is Cytochrome P450 and its enzyme is Cytochrome P450 reductase and its absence can result in a disorder impacting the production of steroid hormone. It would lead to improper growth, effect on the reproductive system and other issues.
Moderate symptom patient would be infertile, whereas those with severe symptom are impacted with the Antley Bixler syndrome where bones have pre-fused, ears are in lower position, and face is also flattened.
ii. Von Gierke Disease
The disorder is named so due to the person who discovered it in 1929.The disease which has an impact on the metabolism of glycogen is called as Glycogen storage disease (GSD-1). Its symptom are improper growth and blood sugar levels quite low and can be deadly too. Glucose-6-phosphatase is the enzyme which converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose and the process is gluconeogenesis. This enzyme is found in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
The absence of this enzyme can lead to this disorder. In this disorder, due to absence of the enzyme, glycogen cannot be broken thus gets deposited in kidneys and liver and thus increasing the liver size. Out of 100,000 people 1 is affected by this disorder and is an autosomal recessive disorder.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Citations
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and axonal transport. J Neurochem . 1980 Jul;35(1):16-25.
- Is it time to reconsider how to manage oocytes affected by smooth endoplasmic reticulum aggregates? Hum Reprod . 2019 Apr 1;34(4):591-600.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced by Toxic Elements-a Review of Recent Developments. Biol Trace Elem Res . 2020 Jul;196(1):10-19.
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Ionic Bond: Definition, Types, and Examples
Continue ReadingIonic Bond Definition
A bond which links atoms, molecules together is known as chemical bond. There exists 3 types of chemical bond and they are Ionic bond, covalent bond and hydrogen bonds and these are bound by electrostatic attraction.
In ionic bond there is shift of electron from the donor to the acceptor. The shift happens usually from a metal which is the donor and will be a cation after donating (positive charge) to the non-metal which is the acceptor and will be anion after receival of electron.
To the name of the ion or molecule “ide” is attached at the end which obtains an electron. Example is conversion of chlorine to chloride and sulfur to sulfide.
What is Ionic Bond?
There could be two types of forces seen between the atoms and ion. When two oppositely charged ions attract each other it is called as electrostatic attraction, whereas ions of same charge will oppose each other, thus electrostatic repulsion. There is electrostatic attraction in the ionic bond, where anions get drawn towards the cation which depends on the gap between the two atoms, their size and the forces on them.
Until the octet configuration is accomplished, electrons will get shift from the donor to the receiver, resulting in zero charge on the donor existing in the form of crystals.
Ionic Bond Examples
A bond which links atoms, molecules together is known as chemical bond. A chemical compound consist of various forms of atom, resulting from a chemical bond. Chemical element are those which contain one type of atom. The bond which clutches the chemical compound is called as ionic compound.
Sodium chloride is the ionic compound in which sodium and chloride are bound by ionic bond.
The overall charge is zero as one ion is positive and the other is negative, thus balancing and resulting in zero charge. Those compounds are said to be acidic which has hydrogen ions and those are basic which has hydroxide ion, together forming a salt.
Ionic Bond vs Covalent Bond
Shift of electrons take place between the donor electron to receiver in ionic bond, whereas in covalent bond there is electron sharing taking place in between the two atoms. After the ionic bond, an ionic compound is formed.
Electronegativity is same in covalent bond, whereas in ionic bond the one that receives the electron is more electronegative. When the cations and anions come together in an electrostatic attraction, they form a salt, whereas no salt formation is seen in covalent bond.
Covalent compound are in liquid or gaseous state at room temperature, whereas ionic compound are in the crystalline form. Covalent compound can have single, double and triple bond and are less polar. Ionic bond has high polarity.
Ionic Bond vs Hydrogen Bond
Shift of electrons take place between the donor electron to receiver in ionic bond, whereas in hydrogen bond, between the two atom a bridge is formed.
Example of ionic bond is sodium chloride and of hydrogen bond is water molecule. For the formation of hydrogen bond, a minute positive hydrogen atom with covalent bond that is polar interacts with polar negative atom with covalent bond results in a hydrogen bond.
Although hydrogen bond is the weakest, the secondary and tertiary protein structures are formed by them.
Ionic Bond Citations
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Hypotonic: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingHypotonic Definition
The word hypotonic originates from a Greek word where, hypo indicates under and tonos means tension. It is related to the tonicity of the solution, where the tonicity degree is quite low and the osmotic pressure is less than the other solution. Such a solution is said to by hypotonic.
The solute concentration is quite minimal when it is matched with the other solutions. The tonicity of a hypotonic solution is minimal when examined with the other solutions.
There will be a flow of water through the cell membrane due to variation in the tonicities of the solution. An example is when the blood serum is hypotonic against a particular solution, all the water molecule will move towards the place which has lower concentration of water.
In muscles which is hypertonic will have niftier tonicity or tension, whereas hypotonic muscle will have less tension and tonicity. Muscle is said to be isotonic when the tonicity is stable.
Hypotonic Citations
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Prophase II: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingProphase II Definition
The dissolution of the nucleolus and nuclear envelope, the shortening and thickness of the chromatids, and the replication and migration of centrosomes to polar areas characterise the first stage of meiosis II.
Because it produces gametes, meiosis is a reproductive cell division. Following meiosis, the resultant cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
This is because the parent cell goes through two meiotic divisions: the first (meiosis I) and the second (meiosis II) (meiosis II). There are four key phases in each of them.
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase are the four stages of the cell cycle. Each of these stages is labelled I or II depending on whether it happens during meiosis I or II.
Prophase II occurs after meiosis I, or if interkinesis is present, after meiosis I. During prophase II, the nuclear envelope and nucleolus dissolve if interkinesis occurs.
The chromosomes have been compacted. Centrosomes reproduce and travel in opposing directions. The centrosomes produce spindle fibres that expand outward.
Metaphase II begins when prophase II finishes. The distinction between prophase I and prophase II is that prophase I is the sole time when chromosomes cross across, whereas prophase II does not.
Prophase II Citations
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Purebred: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingPurebred Definition
• A pure breed animal is one whose ancestors on both sides were members of a recognised breed.
• Of or relating to an animal arising from a long-term cross of the same breed’s unmixed lineage.
The term “purebred” refers to offspring that are the product of genuine breeding. True breeding is a technique for producing children with the same phenotypic as their parents.
When both parents are homozygous for particular characteristics, the outcome is a purebred. The technique of selective breeding might result in a purebred domesticated animal or a companion animal.
Two dogs of the same breed, for example, would have pups with fairly predictable characteristics. However, selective breeding within the same breed would be detrimental to the gene pool.
True breeding has a tendency to narrow the gene pool. Genetic diversity is increased when there is a big gene pool. Furthermore, greater genetic variety may enhance the odds of biological fitness and, as a result, survival.
A limited gene pool, on the other hand, may result in little genetic diversity. This decreases the likelihood of acquiring beneficial characteristics that improve biological fitness.
Because of their small gene pool, purebreds are more likely to have genetic illnesses or congenital health issues.
Purebred Citations
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Relative Fitness: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingRelative Fitness Definition
Relative Fitness is a measure of biological fitness in which a genotype’s or phenotype’s reproductive rate is compared to the population’s maximum reproductive rate (of other genotypes or phenotypes).
Darwinian fitness, or simply fitness of a biological characteristic, is a term used in biology to indicate how effective an organism is at passing on its genes. It differs from physical fitness in that the latter is concerned with an organism’s physical well-being.
Darwinian fitness is concerned with an organism’s capacity to generate progeny. The better an individual’s fitness is, the more likely he or she will survive and live long enough to reproduce.
There are two methods for determining fitness:
(1) absolute fitness and
(2) relative fitness.
Absolute fitness refers to an organism’s fitness as measured by the number of children it would generate in its lifespan and the age at which those offspring would reach reproductive age.
Absolute fitness is standardised relative fitness. It is a biological fitness metric in which the reproductive rate (of a genotype or phenotype) is compared to the population’s maximum reproductive rate (of other genotypes or phenotypes).
Absolute fitness divided by the average number of children in a population can be used to calculate it. It’s written as wrel.
Relative Fitness Citations
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Reticular Connective Tissue: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingReticular Connective Tissue Definition
A kind of connective tissue characterised by the preponderance of type III collagen reticular fibres that produce a labyrinth-like stroma for lymphocytes.
One of the most important animal tissues is connective tissue. Ground material, cells, and fibres make up many connective tissues. They are located in the spaces between organs or other tissues, linking and/or supporting them.
An amorphous gel-like material is the ground substance in connective tissues. They are made up mostly of water, glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans and are located between cells.
Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibres are the three primary kinds of connective tissue fibre. A reticular connective tissue is a connective tissue with a vast network of reticular fibres.
The reticular fibres are mostly made up of type III collagen (100-150 nm in diameter), which is produced by reticular cells, which are unique fibroblasts. Crosslinking of reticular fibres forms a delicate meshwork.
The kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow all have reticular connective tissues. The role of stromal cells in lymphoid organs, such as red bone marrow, spleen, and lymph node stromal cells, is to form a stroma and give structural support.
Reticular Connective Tissue Citations
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Substance: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingSubstance Definition
The word substance comes from the Latin word substantia, which literally means “to stand under.”
(1) The physical matter, material, or substance that makes up an organ or a body.
(2) (In chemistry) A substance, matter, or object with a particular chemical composition and quality.
(3) The most important or necessary component of something.
(4) Substance misuse, as in drugs.
The term substance is used in biology to refer to the material that makes up an organ, such as ground substance or spongy substance. All compounds are substances in chemistry, but not all substances are compounds, because pure elements are chemical substances as well.
Chemical compounds can take the form of a solid, a liquid, or a gas. Water, salt, sugar, and other substances are examples. Light and heat are examples of energy that is not considered chemical substances.
Substance Citations
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Synonymous: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
Continue ReadingSynonymous Definition
Having the same meaning as a synonym; expressing the same thing; communicating the same, or nearly same, concept. Synonymously, these phrases are made up of two assertions that are not unique in meaning, but rather one and the same thing presented in different ways; wisdom and knowledge are synonyms here.
” (Tillotson) The words are interchangeable and interchangeable. We have fewer than ten such terms in our language if no words are synonymous except those that are identical in use and meaning, such that one may always be replaced by the other.
However, the phrase more correctly implies that the terms in question are so close to one another that they may be used interchangeably in many, if not all, instances.
1. Words may therefore coincide in certain connections, and thus be interchanged, whereas they can not be interchanged in other connections. For example, we may speak of mental strength or mental force, but we speak of gravitational force (not strength).
2. Two words may differ somewhat, but this difference may be insignificant to the speaker’s purpose, allowing him to easily swap them.
For example, whether we talk about a guy having achieved his goal or having reached his goal makes little difference in most situations. For these and other reasons, we have a number of terms that may be used interchangeably in various instances or contexts, and they are referred to as synonyms.
Synonymous words “are words that, while having great and essential resemblances in meaning, also have small, minor, and partial differences, these differences being differences that were either inhered in them originally and on the basis of their etymology, or differences that have acquired in the eyes of all through usage, or differences that, though nearly latent now, are capable of receiving by the hands of intelligent and masters of the tongue in a low-key manner.
Synonyms are words that have a similar meaning in the main but differ in other ways.
” Synonyms include the terms “identical” and “interchangeable.”
Synonymous Citations
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Turgidity: Definition, Types, and Examples
Continue ReadingTurgidity Definition
The state of being turgid or swollen, especially due to high fluid content, is referred to as turgidity. Turgidity refers to the feeling of being bloated, distended, or swollen in general.
Turgidity, in a biological context, explains how plant cells may remain upright despite the absence of a skeletal structural structure like mammals. Plants gain stiffness as a result of it.
As a result, cell distention is a common occurrence in plants. In fact, if you don’t provide it to the plant, it will appear withered and sick. The existence of the cell wall and the osmoregulatory function of the vacuole in plants allow for turgidity.
The cell wall protects the cell against lysis caused by excessive water inflow, whereas the vacuole controls solute concentration and promotes osmotic water transport into and out of the cell.
Turgidity Etymology
Turgidity is derived from the Latin turgidus, which derives from the Greek turgēre , which means “to swell.”
Turgidity in Plants
Plant turgidity is accounted for by the cell wall, which is one of the most important characteristics of a plant cell. Aside from the plasma membrane, the plant cell wall is another layer that surrounds the cell. It might be made up of one or two layers. The main cell wall is in charge of secreting the secondary cell wall, which is located atop the plasma membrane.
Plant turgidity refers to a situation in which the cells of a plant become turgid owing to turgor pressure, which is the pressure applied by water inside the cell against the cell wall. The cell wall of a plant organism is one of its most essential characteristics. A cell wall is an additional layer that surrounds a cell. They are absent in the animals, leaving just the cell membrane.
Plants possess both of these qualities. The plant’s cells have an extra protective covering called the cell wall. It is made up mostly of cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose and is robust and stiff. Plant cell walls are made up of one or two layers. The main cell wall is the initial layer. This layer has the potential to generate a layer underneath it. The secondary cell wall is the new layer.
The second layer is a thick lignin-depositing layer. Lignin contributes to the cell’s waterproofing. These characteristics of the cell wall aid the plant cell’s resistance to osmotic pressure, which is caused by a difference in solute concentrations between solutions separated by a semipermeable barrier, such as the cell membrane, during osmosis.
Turgid Cell
The cell wall and the cell membrane of a plasmolyzed plant cell have gaps between them. When a plant cell is put in a hypotonic solution, this happens. The decrease in turgor pressure is caused by water molecules moving out of the cell. The cell membrane of a flaccid plant cell is not inflated and does not push strongly against the cell wall.
When a plant cell is put in an isotonic solution, this happens. Between the cell and the surrounding fluid, there would be no net flow of water molecules. A cell with turgor pressure is referred to as a turgid cell. When a plant cell is submerged in a hypotonic solution, osmosis allows water to enter the cell, resulting in high turgor pressure on the plant cell wall.
A cell with turgor pressure is referred to as a turgid cell. The plant that seems to be healthy (i.e. not wilted) contains turgid cells. Solutes (such as ions and carbohydrates) are stored in the plant cell (particularly, inside its vacuole). Water prefers to flow in because the inside of the cell has a greater solute concentration (and hence fewer water molecules) than the exterior.
Hypotonic refers to a solution (surrounding the cell) with a lower solute concentration than the solution inside the cell. When a plant cell is submerged in a hypotonic solution, osmosis allows water to enter the cell. A high turgor pressure is applied against the plant cell wall as a result of the inflow of water.
The cell becomes turgid as a result of this. Plants have a cell wall, which protects the cell from bursting (osmotic lysis), which occurs when there is no cell wall. In a hypotonic solution, an animal cell, for example, would swell.
If osmosis continues, the pipe will ultimately explode. As a result, the plant cell’s cell wall is required to maintain cell integrity and prevent the cell from bursting. The osmotic pressure exerted by the cell wall prevents excessive osmosis in the plant cells.
The cell wall, on the other hand, is unable to protect a plant cell that has been exposed to an isotonic or hypertonic solution. These solutions might cause the plant to get wilted and lose its vitality.
Flaccid Cell
An isotonic solution is one in which the concentration of solutes in the solution is the same as the concentration of solutes inside the cell. There would be no net movement of water molecules between the two, implying that there would be no net movement of water molecules between the two. If you put a plant cell in an isotonic solution, it will become flaccid. Flaccidity is the medical term for this disorder.
The cell membrane of a flaccid plant cell is not firmly pressed against the cell wall and is not bulging. Thus, the turgor pressure is the difference between turgidity and flaccidity. Because of the turgor pressure applied to the cell wall, a plant cell appears swollen or distended in turgidity, but in flaccidity, the plant cell loses its turgidity and appears limp or flaccid.
Plasmolyzed Cell
A hypotonic solution is one in which the concentration of solutes is higher than the concentration of solutes inside the cell. The turgor pressure of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution decreases as water molecules migrate out of the cell. Plasmolyzed refers to a cell that has lost its turgor pressure. Plant cells that have been plasmolyzed have holes between the cell wall and the cell membrane.
In addition, the cells looked to be shrinking. Plasmolysis is the process or situation in which protoplasm shrinks as a result of water loss through osmosis. Plasmolysis, on the other hand, is an uncommon occurrence in nature. Rather, plant cells are submerged in powerful saline or sugar solutions in the lab to induce them.
Turgidity and Rigidity
As previously stated, turgidity refers to the state of being turgid or bloated as a result of the fluid present. Rigidity, on the other hand, refers to the state of being stiff and unbending. Turgidity and stiffness are key characteristics of plants because they help them stay erect. Both of these characteristics are due to the turgor pressure exerted on the cell wall.
As previously stated, the cell wall protects the cell from osmotic pressure, which, if too high, might cause osmotic lysis in cells without it. By creating a thicker secondary layer containing lignin, the cell wall also offers structural support. Aside from that, cellulose is present in the cell wall, which makes it stiff and durable.
Another layer of pectin-rich intercellular substance lies between the cell walls. The middle lamella is the name given to this stratum. Its main purpose is to hold neighbouring cells together. Overall, the plant’s cellular characteristics allow it to resist gravitational force and remain erect towards the source of light.
Importance of Turgidity in Plants
Plants require turgidity because it offers structural support and strength. Without it, the plant would be unable to maintain its upright position, which is the optimal position for collecting light energy for photosynthesis. Aside from that, it gives plants rigidity.
The plant cells will not be completely dilated if there is not enough water absorbed to generate turgor. If this situation is not corrected, the plant will become wilted and sickly. The drooping caused by turgor loss can be restored by providing enough water for the vacuole to process through osmoregulation.
Turgidity Citations
- The Nanoscale Organization of the Plasma Membrane and Its Importance in Signaling: A Proteolipid Perspective. Plant Physiol . 2020 Apr;182(4):1682-1696.
- Muscle Articulations: Flexible Jaw Joints Made of Soft Tissues. Integr Comp Biol . 2015 Aug;55(2):193-204.
- Nuclear envelope: a new frontier in plant mechanosensing? Biophys Rev . 2017 Aug;9(4):389-403.
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